Meanwhile, the Achaean commander Odysseus is navigating the ship that Chryseis has boarded. When he lands, he returns the maiden and makes sacrifices to Apollo. Chryses, overjoyed to see his daughter, prays to the god to lift the plague from the Achaean camp. Apollo acknowledges his prayer, and Odysseus returns to his comrades.
But the end of the plague on the Achaeans only marks the beginning of worse suffering. Ever since his quarrel with Agamemnon, Achilles has refused to participate in battle, and, after twelve days, Thetis makes her appeal to Zeus, as promised.
Zeus is reluctant to help the Trojans, for his wife, Hera , favors the Greeks, but he finally agrees. Hera becomes livid when she discovers that Zeus is helping the Trojans, but her son Hephaestus persuades her not to plunge the gods into conflict over the mortals.
Like other ancient epic poems, The Iliad presents its subject clearly from the outset. Although the Trojan War as a whole figures prominently in the work, this larger conflict ultimately provides the text with background rather than subject matter. By the time Achilles and Agamemnon enter their quarrel, the Trojan War has been going on for nearly ten years. Instead, it scrutinizes the origins and the end of this wrath, thus narrowing the scope of the poem from a larger conflict between warring peoples to a smaller one between warring individuals.
But while the poem focuses most centrally on the rage of a mortal, it also concerns itself greatly with the motivations and actions of the gods. Even before Homer describes the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, he explains that Apollo was responsible for the conflict. So home we sail. But wait: let us question a holy man, a prophet, even a man skilled with dreams— dreams as well can come our way from Zeus— come, someone to tell us why Apollo rages so, whether he blames us for a vow we failed, or sacrifice.
So he proposed and down he sat again as Calchas rose among them, Thestor's son, the clearest by far of all the seers who scan the flight of birds. He knew all things that are, all things that are past and all that are to come, the seer who had led the Argive ships to Troy with the second sight that god Apollo gave him. For the armies' good the seer began to speak: "Achilles, dear to Zeus. I will tell it all: But strike a pact with me, swear you will defend me with all your heart, with words and strength of hand.
A mighty king, raging against an inferior, is too strong. Even if he can swallow down his wrath today, still he will nurse the burning in his chest until, sooner or later, he sends it bursting forth. Consider it closely, Achilles. Will you save me? And the matchless runner reassured him: "Courage! Out with it now, Calchas. Reveal the will of god, whatever you may know. And I swear by Apollo dear to Zeus, the power you pray to, Calchas, when you reveal god's will to the Argives—no one, not while I am alive and see the light on earth, no one will lay his heavy hands on you by the hollow ships.
None among all the armies. Not even if you mean Agamemnon here who now claims to be, by far, the best of the Achaeans. The god's enraged because Agamemnon spurned his priest, he refused to free his daughter, he refused the ransom.
Then we can calm the god, and only then appease him. So he declared and sat down. With a sudden, killing look he wheeled on Calchas first: "Seer of misery! Never a word that works to my advantage! Always misery warms your heart, your prophecies— never a word of profit said or brought to pass. Now, again, you divine god's will for the armies, bruit it about, as fact, why the deadly Archer multiplies our pains: because I, I refused that glittering price for the young girl Chryseis.
Indeed, I prefer her by far, the girl herself, I want her mine in my own house! I rank her higher than Clytemnestra, my wedded wife—she's nothing less in build or breeding, in mind or works of hand. But I am willing to give her back, even so, if that is best for all. What I really want is to keep my people safe, not see them dying. But fetch me another prize, and straight off too, else I alone of the Argives go without my honor. But the swift runner Achilles answered him at once, "Just how, Agamemnon, great field marshal.
I know of no troves of treasure, piled, lying idle, anywhere. Whatever we dragged from towns we plundered, all's been portioned out. But collect it, call it back from the rank and file? That would be the disgrace.
So return the girl to the god, at least for now. We Achaeans will pay you back, three, four times over, if Zeus will grant us the gift, somehow, someday; to raze Troy's massive ramparts to the ground. Oh no, you won't get past me, take me in that way! What do you want? Is that why you order me to give her back? No — if our generous Argives will give me a prize, a match for my desires, equal to what I've lost, well and good.
We'll deal with all this later, in due time. Now come, we haul a black ship down to the bright sea, gather a decent number of oarsmen along her locks and put aboard a sacrifice, and Chryseis herself, in all her beauty. Let one of the leading captains take command. How could any Argive soldier obey your orders, freely and gladly do your sailing for you or fight your enemies, full force?
Not I, no. It wasn't Trojan spearmen who brought me here to fight. The Trojans never did me damage, not in the least, they never stole my cattle or my horses, never in Phthia where the rich soil breeds strong men did they lay waste my crops.
How could they? Look at the endless miles that lie between us. What do you care? You don't look right or left. And now you threaten to strip me of my prize in person— the one I fought for long and hard, and sons of Achaea handed her to me. Better that way by far, to journey home in the beaked ships of war. I have no mind to linger here disgraced, brimming your cup and piling up your plunder.
But the lord of men Agamemnon shot back, "Desert, by all means—if the spirit drives you home! I will never beg you to stay, not on my account. Never—others will take my side and do me honor, Zeus above all, whose wisdom rules the world. You—I hate you most of all the warlords loved by the gods. Always dear to your heart, strife, yes, and battles, the bloody grind of war.
What if you are a great soldier? That's just a gift of god. Go home with your ships and comrades, lord it over your Myrmidons! But let this be my warning on your way: since Apollo insists on taking my Chryseis, I'll send her back in my own ships with my crew. But I, I will be there in person at your tents to take Briseis in all her beauty, your own prize— so you can learn just how much greater I am than you and the next man up may shrink from matching words with me, from hoping to rival Agamemnon strength for strength!
He broke off and anguish gripped Achilles. The heart in his tugged chest was pounding, torn. Should he draw the long sharp sword slung at his hip, thrust through the ranks and kill Agamemnon now? Rearing behind him Pallas seized his fiery hair— only Achilles saw her, none of the other fighters struck with wonder he spun around, he knew her at once, Pallas Athena!
Child of Zeus with the shield of thunder, why come now? To witness the outrage Agamemnon just committed? I tell you this, and so help me it's the truth— he'll soon pay for his arrogance with his life! Her gray eyes clear, the goddess Athena answered, "Down from the skies I come to check your rage if only you will yield. There is no king here so hateful to me as you are, for you are ever quarrelsome and ill affected.
What though you be brave? Was it not heaven that made you so? Go home, then, with your ships and comrades. I care neither for you nor for your anger; and thus will I do: since Phoebus Apollo is taking Chryseis from me, I shall send her with my ship and my followers, but I shall come to your tent and. While he was thus in two minds, and was drawing his mighty sword from its scabbard, Athena came down.
Achilles turned in amaze, and by the fire that flashed from her eyes at once knew that she was. To see the pride [ hubris ] of Agamemnon, son of Atreus? Let me tell you - and it shall surely be -. Hera has sent me, who cares for both of you alike. Hold, therefore, and obey. This will be best, for the gods ever hear the prayers of him who has obeyed them. Then she went back to Olympus among the other gods [ daimones ], and to the house of aegis-bearing Zeus.
But the son of Peleus again began railing at the son of Atreus, for he was still in a rage. You shun this as you do death itself. You had rather go round and. You devour your people, for you are king over a feeble folk; otherwise, son of Atreus, henceforward you would insult no man.
Therefore I say, and swear it with a great oath - nay, by this my scepter which shall sprout neither leaf nor shoot,. In the day of your distress, when your men fall dying by the murderous hand of Hektor, you shall not know how to help them, and shall rend your heart with rage for the hour when you offered insult to the best [ aristos ] of the Achaeans.
Then stood up smooth-tongued Nestor, the facile speaker of the Pylians, and the words fell from his lips sweeter than honey. With all sincerity and goodwill, therefore, he addressed them thus: - "Of a truth," he said, "a great sorrow [ penthos ] has befallen the Achaean land. I am older than either of you; therefore be guided by me. Never again can I behold such men as Peirithoos and Dryas shepherd of his people, or as Kaineus, Exadios, godlike Polyphemus,.
These were the mightiest men ever born upon this earth: mightiest were they, and when they fought the fiercest tribes of mountain savages they utterly overthrew them.
I came from distant Pylos, and went about among them,. Not a man now living could withstand them, but they heard my words, and were persuaded by them. So be it also with yourselves, for this is the more excellent way. Son of Atreus, check your anger, I implore you; end this quarrel with Achilles, who in the day of battle is a tower of strength to the Achaeans.
Furthermore I say - and lay my saying to your heart - I shall fight neither you nor any man about this girl, for those that take were those also that gave. Try, that others may see; if you do, my spear shall be reddened with your blood.
The son of Peleus went back to his tents and ships with the son of Menoitios and his company, while Agamemnon drew a vessel into the water and chose a crew of twenty oarsmen. And Odysseus went as leader. These, then, went on board and sailed their ways over the sea. But the son of Atreus bade the people purify themselves; so they purified themselves and cast their filth into the sea. Thus did they busy themselves throughout the host. But Agamemnon did not forget the threat that he had made Achilles,.
They found Achilles sitting by his tent and his ships,. They stood fearfully and reverently before him, and never a word did they speak, but he knew them and said, "Welcome, heralds, messengers of gods and men;. Therefore, Patroklos, bring her and give her to them, but let them be witnesses by the blessed gods, by mortal men,.
Agamemnon is mad with rage and knows not how to look before and after that the Achaeans may fight by their ships in safety. He brought Briseis from the tent and gave her over to the heralds, who took her with them to the ships of the Achaeans - and the woman was loath to go. Then Achilles went all alone. It is not so. Forthwith she rose as it were a gray mist out of the waves,.
What is it that gives you grief [ penthos ]? Keep it not from my thinking [ noos ], but tell me, that we may know it together. We went to Thebe the strong city of Eetion, sacked it, and brought hither the spoil. The sons of the Achaeans shared it duly among themselves, and chose lovely Chryseis as the prize of Agamemnon;. On this the rest of the Achaeans with one voice were for respecting the priest and taking the ransom that he offered; but not so Agamemnon, who spoke fiercely to him and sent him roughly away.
Then the god sent a deadly dart upon the Argives, and the people died thick on one another, for the arrows went everywhere among the wide host of the Achaeans.
At last a seer [ mantis ]. Whereon the son of Atreus rose in anger, and threatened that which he has since done. The Achaeans are now taking the girl in a ship. Help your brave son, therefore, if you are able. Go to Olympus, and if you have ever. Go, then, to him, remind him of all this, clasp his knees, and bid him give succor to the Trojans. Let the Achaeans be hemmed in at the sterns of their ships, and perish on the sea-shore,. For Zeus went yesterday to Okeanos, to a feast among the Ethiopians, and the other gods went with him.
Meanwhile Odysseus reached Chryse with the hecatomb. They then got out upon the sea-shore and landed the hecatomb for Apollo; Chryseis also left the ship,. They washed their hands and took up the barley-meal to sprinkle over the victims,. Even as you did hear me aforetime when I prayed, and did press hard upon the Achaeans,.
When they had done praying and sprinkling the barley-meal, they drew back the heads of the victims and killed and flayed them. When the thigh-bones were burned and they had tasted the inward meats,. As soon as they had had enough to eat and drink,.
Thus all day long the young men worshipped the god with song, hymning him and chanting the joyous paean, and the god took pleasure in their voices;. Apollo sent them a fair wind,. As the sail bellied with the wind the ship flew through the seething deep water, and the foam hissed against her bows as she sped onward. When they reached the wide-stretching host of the Achaeans,.
Now after twelve days the immortal gods came back in a body to Olympus,. Thetis was not unmindful of the charge her son had laid upon her, so she rose from under the sea and went, enveloped in mist, through great heaven with early morning to Olympus, where she found the mighty son of Kronos sitting all alone upon its topmost ridges. King Agamemnon has dishonored him by taking his prize and keeping her. Honor him then yourself, Olympian lord of counsel, and grant victory to the Trojans, till the Achaeans.
Go back now, lest she should find out. I will consider the matter, and will bring it about as wish. This is the most solemn act that I can offer to any god.
I never recall my word, or deceive, or fail to do what I say, when I have nodded my head. When the pair had thus laid their plans, they parted - Zeus to his mansion, while the goddess left the splendor of Olympus, and plunged into the depths of the sea. The gods rose from their seats, before the coming of their sire.
Not one of them dared. There, then, he took his seat. But Hera, when she saw him, knew that he and silver-footed Thetis, the daughter of the Old One of the Sea, had been planning mischief, so she at once began to upbraid him.
You are always settling matters in secret behind my back, and have never yet told me, if you could help it, one word of your intentions. You are my wife, but you would find it hard to understand them. When it is proper for you to hear, there is no one, god or man, who will be told sooner, but when I mean to keep a matter to myself,. He decides upon the latter course of action and discovers Agamemnon among the wounded leaders gathered in a safer location by the ships.
He and other Achaians have had many opportunities to hear Hector, including his exhortations for his troops to engage the Achaians in battle or his direct threats to the Achaians themselves. Odysseus, however, is not yet finished. He continues his confrontational assault by sarcastically asking Agamemnon if he really intends to leave 88— This is the sort of order, Odysseus berates, that neither man nor king should utter.
Athena brings Agamemnon and Menelaos into contention about the departure voyage. Proclus Chrestomathy — In Iliad 14, by contrast, it is Agamemnon who wants to leave, despite his plea and assurance that he did not in fact issue an authoritative command Agamemnon is backtracking.
He wishes to revise the past with a new interpretation. If the reactions of others are relevant in our evaluation of Agamemnon, they imply that Agamemnon has acted impetuously and miscalculated the response of his fellow warriors. I suggest that he now feels regret for what he has proposed. Agamemnon emerges from Iliad 14 as an inept leader once again. Nestor came to him for advice and got none, but instead was treated to yet another call for a nostos.
Odysseus and the troops expected superior things from their leader, yet all anyone seemed to get was a peevish attempt to revise the past or retract patently thoughtless plans. An assembly has been called apparently by Achilles, His rejoinder 78— follows an ambiguous, uneasy, if not self-deprecating, introduction.
He will offer restitution to Achilles; yet, by sitting rather than standing, fashions himself overtly as a victim. But among men in a great uproar, how would any man listen or speak? But he is affected even though being a clear speaker. The poet elucidates overtly this ineluctable history, not only by what Agamemnon says, but also by how he has him say it Zeus had announced This would not change, no matter what Agamemnon claimed.
Who, after all, can hold Zeus accountable? It is a rhetorical conclusio a maiore ad minus , as he seeks to hide behind the harmful delusion of Zeus to shelter his own faltering ego.
But what about responsibility? The need for Agamemnon to recognize that he is accountable, I would further suggest, includes the presumption that he is also responsible. This is something Odysseus makes clear to a rather thick-skulled Agamemnon in Iliad Agamemnon, after all, in accordance with oral style, followed his conclusion by the evidence of his assertions. Further, Agamemnon is called to change by Odysseus.
But would Agamemnon act differently on a future occasion? His character, as we have seen it unfold from this and earlier chapters, seems consistent enough for his audience to doubt that possibility. For instance, in Iliad 3, we are given a picture of Priam and other senior Trojan leaders with Helen on the citadel walls overlooking the battlefield and troops.
Why else would he be given articulate speech? They could hear past the surface influence of gender Helen and Priam , narrative silence Odysseus and Ajax , and questions of narrative perspective and power Xanthos and Zeus , when listening to the characters speak.
They remembered the sort of traits that made characters who they were from their words and actions at other times. Euripides Troades — , is always just under the surface.
Priam is not exempt from her influence. He was known to the audience in any case, since he was apparently famous enough to be sought out by Dolon Iliad It is not like him to come to this realization himself. For the core audience who had heard the whole of the Iliad and Odyssey in some form before, and for the singer who works within a deep performance tradition, Agamemnon is not a suddenly invented character.
Rather, he is traditionally recognizable to the poet and to the external audience and, in a more limited way, to the internal audience also. What they know of him moreover, is that he is, in short, a pathetic despot, with few redeeming qualities.
We might instance Helen. She affirms her own agency in the actions that led to the Trojan War despite the gendered silence of males around her. Yet, there is no quibbling when Achilles realizes where his aloofness from battle has led, and no plea that he is not to blame for the death of his friend or the losses of his fellow warriors.
Rather, just the opposite. There is a personal realization of the consequences of his prolonged anger and a resolute plan of action to honor his fallen companion. The poet and audience knew the sort of character Agamemnon was. The narrative perspective of a divinity, after all, is certainly a step up from the more limited human vista.
Poseidon addresses the Achaian troops Iliad As we have seen throughout this chapter, Agamemnon appears to be impetuous—he acts first and thinks afterwards—but he is also given to unusually insulting and even irreverent comments.
His actions are often chastised by his inferiors and end up in apology and retraction; he blames divinity, yet is still responsible and suffers the consequences.
As we noted in the preceding chapter, the Odyssey is one with the Iliad in presenting us with an Agamemnon who is impetuous, thoughtless, rash, and foolish. As we saw for the Odyssey in Chapter 3, Agamemnon is on the bottom of an ascending scale of outcomes among leading Greek heroes, a scale woven into the very fabric of the Odyssean tradition. We are presented with an Agamemnon who is also inept and unconvincing as a leader, plagued with a personality displaying problems of arrogance, imperiousness, irreverence, and insult.
Why is Agamemnon such a pathetic leader? Is there an impinging influence within the underlying oral tradition that has affected his characterization? A chronological consideration of Agamemnon in the Iliad will necessarily focus on his most significant appearances: 1. We will, nevertheless, through discussion and notes, refer to most every instance where Agamemnon is mentioned, even when Agamemnon is not himself present. Alden disagrees, but I think Griffin is correct. For a view that such action was condemned, see Gould — Fenik speaks of battle supplication, but Wilson perhaps too restrictively.
See also Naiden on the difference between what Homer places in the foreground and background in cases of supplication. The parallel between the supplication of Chryses and Priam has been noted by Rabel — and Goldhill b— One reader suggested that the figure of Leiodes Odyssey His death is placed before Phemios just to show that it is merited.
Latacz a notes that the temporal conjunction functions to emphasize the irreversibility of the moment. For a consideration of the generic quality of epic proems, see Petropoulos Iliad 1. On Greek experiences and attitudes over loss of homeland, see Garland For further discussion, see Flower — Felson and Slatkin Blondell Certainly slave-concubinage though not bigamy was a practice that continued into the Classical Period see Lysias 1.
On the changing practices from Homer to Classical Athens, see Ogden — The ongoing jealousy over a sustained sexual relationship between the husband and his concubine is made clear by the iterative imperfects of Iliad 9. Phoinix did comply. Alden — argues that Peleus does not completely replace Amyntor as a father, since he sees the relationship more in terms of a metanast. See especially Iliad 9.
Eurykleia did, however, become a wetnurse to Odysseus, so must have had a baby at some point Pomeroy — On the complex nature of the position of slaves and concubines in the Homeric oikos , see Thalmann — The son but perhaps also a daughter, cf. Iliad The best of situations could always change at death, something evident in Classical Athens, as poor old blind Arignotos found out after his brother died see Aeschines Against Timarchus — Ogden — notes that this is a Euripidean proclivity.
A competitive tension existed in other ancient Mediterranean societies, even where polygamy was regularly practiced.
See e. Genesis As suggested in Chapters 1 and 2, the Odyssey in some form was certainly known to the poet of the Iliad and his audience. On the possible implications from onomastics, see Marquardt — The sacrifice of Iphigenia, probably the same daughter as the Homeric Iphianassa Iliad 9.
Burgess —33 argues that earlier oral forms of the Cyclic epics are ultimately from the same tradition that gave us the Homeric epics.
Kullman thinks that at least the Faktenkanon of Cyclic motifs originated orally before Homer. Scodel accepts this background cf. The poet, then, does not rely on prior knowledge of Chalcas. Aeschylus Agamemnon —, —, Choephoroe , Persae — On its part in ritual, see Alexiou The demand for immediate compensation is certainly not something Achilles feels Agamemnon should require contra Wilson Achilles only concedes that a replacement geras is appropriate at some future time Iliad 1.
Adkins , — rejects this argument in favor of an argument for pure self-interest. See Gagarin for an attempted via media. Nagy —41 argues that the Iliad attempts to present Achilles as the best of the Achaians. See Chapter 2, s. Should Troy ever be taken, Agamemnon would receive a far superior portion of the spoils — This is a traditional refrain in Homer, as we saw in Chapter 2, n. On the positive qualities of Argus, see Scodel ; for a consideration of dogs in similes see Kelly a— For dogs as companions in the hunt, see Iliad 3.
On the role of dogs in ancient society as symbols of the health of a household, see especially Beck See Iliad 1. This is one of many resonances between Iliad 1 and 9, as we will see when we consider book 9 later in this chapter. Both words are equally employed in Homer, occurring in various forms eleven times in total six in the Iliad and five in the Odyssey. This is an instance of the emphatic use of formulae of the sort noted by Di Benedetto On the traditional nature of this form of appeal, see my comments in Chapter 2, n.
This response acts as an immediate foil for Agamemnon, but perhaps also metonymically for Achilles himself, who does not accept the offered amelioration of the assembly in Iliad 9.
This aspect is missed by Chantraine , s. Lardinois notes that Achilles references are more generally to himself. For example, of Agamemnon here and in Iliad 2. Hermes Iliad 2. Nestor is himself, unsurprisingly, a standard sagacious contrast for less thoughtful youthful impetuousness. See Chapter 3, s. On irony and the ironic use of traditional language cues, see Chapter 2.
She suggests that Agamemnon is not, in any case, demonstrating insincerity or offering an inappropriate number of gifts. Clustering, as Beye notes, is a proclivity of Homeric poetry. West —, suggests comparisons with a few Near Eastern examples to show that dreams also came to kings in those traditions to stir them into battle. Heiden Certainly, as Christensen ; cf. Heiden argues, the diapeira does function to draw in the audience, a vital feature for oral performance.
Leaf a—69 earlier suggested excising the scene, noting that nothing is lost if it is removed, leaving Agamemnon in utter despondency proposing that the siege be abandoned. Iliad 2. It was instead Odysseus, stirred on by Athena, who actually stopped the flight at the last moment by upbraiding the basileis Iliad 2. Dentice Di Accadia , e. The theme may also be expanded by more than one rejection or amplification, for instance. Defeat, not victory, awaits him, as the predictions from Book 1 have clearly indicated.
On the negative use of nostos in the Iliad , see Maronitis — LfgrE 4. Odysseus treats the lower ranks attempting to achieve a retreat and nostos severely, however Iliad 2. The verse can still be read as a less direct, albeit gentler rebuke when taken as a reported statement. A scholion of the T codex Erbse — The surrounding verses make it plain that they are fearful and are barely being restrained by Odysseus.
In only four instances is the epithet used of other heroes perhaps influenced by the Nestor tradition : of Phyleus Iliad 2. The Dark Age origin of this epithet may be suggested by the emphasis on horses apart from chariots, which in the Mycenaean Age acted as a platform for archers Drews — Lang reminds us of the presence of clearly Dark Age warfare in Homer; see Donlan — for the raising of horses as a sign of social status in the Dark Age.
But cf. Iliad 4. A more balanced account can be found in Allan On irony in the Iliad and Odyssey , see Chapter 2; on the gap between divine action and human awareness in the Odyssey , see Dekker Haubold , 56 suggests the destructive Theban war Iliad 6.
For an outline of the House of Atreus myth, see Gantz , , — After the C2 break see Appendix A , i. We saw there that Homer referenced the nostos of Agamemnon, a journey that connected him through traditional language cues to other heroes Menelaos, Odysseus who experienced difficulty, but also to Thyestes.
See Chapter 2, n. The bT scholiast Erbse — Individual themes, however, such as comparison with Ares, are traditional Kelly a— , although comparison to Hermes by itself may have a negative sense. For an excellent discussion of the advances of the Dipylon Master and his predecessors, see Hurwitt —36 and Coldstream — For a Near Eastern comparison, see West
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